NB: click here to dive straight to the table of contents

 

1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

HUMAN AND ENZOOTIC GEOPHAGIA

IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

SAFE SOIL FOR A HEALTHIER COMMUNITY

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS

G-I. E. EKOSSE AND L. DE JAGER
19TH – 24TH OCTOBER 2008

Central University of Technology, Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Book of Abstracts of the 1st International Conference on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa

Copyright@2008 by Ekosse et al. (all authors of abstracts in this Book of Abstracts)

Produced by G I E Ekosse and L de Jager

First Published in South Africa

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the Editors and the corresponding authors where applicable.

This book is distributed subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the prior consent of the copyright holders in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent recipient.

 

DISCLAIMER

While utmost care has been taken to ensure that information presented in this Book of Abstracts is as accurate as possible at the time of going to press, the editors accept no liability whatsoever for errors that might inadvertently occur. In case of doubt, errors should be directed to the different authors at the addresses and contacts given in the different abstracts. G-I E Ekosse and L de Jager (Editors) (2008) Book of Abstracts of the 1st International Conference on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following institutions are acknowledged for their contributions and support towards the success of the conference and on going execution of the project:

• The National Research Foundation of South Africa for the NRF Grant UID 63583 on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland within the framework of the South African Regional Co-operation Fund for Scientific Research and Technological Development
• The International Geoscience Programme for the approval of the UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP Project # 545 on Clays and Clay Minerals in Africa which runs for five years.
• Universities in Southern Africa for allowing their staff and graduate students to participate in the project on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland. The institutions include Central University of Technology, University of Botswana, University of Johannesburg, University of Limpopo, University of Swaziland, University of Venda, Wabash College, and Walter Sisulu University

International Geoscience Programme (IGCP) # 545

Clays and Clay Minerals in Africa

Geneses and Paleoenvironmental Considerations, Mineralogy,

Geochemistry and Applications

Research activities into clays and clay minerals in Africa have not been adequately and appropriately  documented. Poorly and fragmentally co-ordinated scientific investigations into argillaceous sediments coupled with acute financial constraints are accountable to the limited studies so far executed. In 2007 the International Geoscience Programme (IGCP) Project # 545 on Clays and Clay Minerals in Africa was approved to run for five years. The main objectives of the project include:

• Establishing the geneses and paleoenvironmental considerations, mineralogy, geochemistry and applications of clays and clay minerals in Africa
• Creating proper documentation of clays and clay minerals in Africa – a unique contribution to Clays and Clay Minerals Body of Knowledge
• Advancing opportunities for sustainable developmental projects that local communities could embark

More than 60 scientists and researchers are currently engaged in one or more of the IGCP Project # 545 thirteen research themes. The themes are as follows:

• Paleoenvironments

• Clay minerals geneses

• Mineralogical characterization

• Chemical/geochemical characterization

• Physical and related properties

• Stable isotopes and dating

• Clays in medicine/pharmaceutics and geophagia

• Agricultural, environmental and industrial applications of clays

• Clays in soils

• Clay minerals processing/beneficiation

• Clay minerals mining/extraction

• Clays in geohazardous environments

• Clays in other related areas

Geophagia, a sub theme in Clays in medicine/pharmaceutics and geophagia is one of the research focus areas which has succeeded in obtaining funding from the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa through the South African Regional Co-operation Fund for Scientific Research and Technological Development. With a team of 16 researchers and a number of postgraduate students drawn from universities in Botswana, South Africa and Swaziland, the Human and Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa Project started in 2007. Different theories and interpretations of both geophagic materials and geophagic practices have been advanced by scholars. Geophagia, which is the deliberate and purposeful ingestion of soils and clays by human beings and animals, is known to be a form of pica previously referred to as dirt-eating and has been in existence for many years in several parts of the world. It has been related to nutritional, psychological, cultural and medical, social, religious/spiritual, and ritual needs. The consumption of geophagic soils and clays is criticized as unhygienic, exposing consumers to toxic constituents in soils such as heavy metals and parasites. Prior to the commencement of this project, there has been little or no known documented studies addressing the mineralogy, geochemistry, chemistry, microbiology, ecology, and human and environmental health associated with geophagia in Botswana, South Africa and Swaziland. Nutritional, pharmacological, and physiological effects on geophagic practitioners have not been agreeably understood by the scientific community. It thus became imperative in characterizing geophagic soils and clays in these countries, and relating existing indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) of geophagia to scientific findings. Extensive fieldwork has so far been carried out; questionnaires administered to various target populations including school children, university students, adults and farmers; and geophagic samples being analysed in different laboratories in the region. Four workshops have also been successfully conducted. This 1st International Conference on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa provides a controlled and limited platform for researchers to share their findings on the subject. Conference abstracts are reflective of featured presentations on varied aspects of geophagia particularly in the region as well as other parts of the world covering the four conference themes:

• Historical, socio-cultural, and socio-economic aspects associated with geophagia

• Physico-chemistry, chemistry and mineralogy of geophagic materials

• Human and animal health aspects associated with geophagia

• Geophagia and the biophysical environment.

 

GIE Ekosse

Prof. G-I E Ekosse

Project Leader:
UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 545 Project on Clays and Clay Minerals in Africa Project Leader: NRF ULD 63583 Project on Human and  Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa

WELCOMING WORD FROM THE CHAIR- LOCAL ORGANIZING

COMMITTEE

 

It is my pleasure to welcome you all in Bloemfontein, South Africa at the first conference on Geophagia in Southern Africa. This scientific conference represents a unique opportunity to bring together those that are interested in the practice of Geophagia from all over the world. Professionals represented varies from scientists and researchers, ecologists, engineers, geologists and public health workers that offers a forum, consisting of a multidisciplinary audience, who could exchange ideas, share research results and discuss new areas of interest. The conference aims at covering all areas of research in geophagia from basic research and experimental results to applied research in areas such as socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects, physico-chemistry, mineralogy, applied soil science and human and animal health.

Geophagia, a term derived from two Greek words, geo- (earth) and phag (eat), is the purposeful ingestion of soils and clays by humans and animals. It has been linked to nutritional, taste, psychological, cultural and medical, social, spiritual, religious, ritual and physiological aspects. It has been practised for thousands of years in many parts of the world. In Southern Africa it is widely

practised and for some an apparent natural part of their dietary habits. However, we are still challenged with many unanswered questions regarding the practice of Geophagia; the useful and/or negative role it may play in the well-being of the individual and the community at large. The challenge for researchers in Geophagia in the Southern African context is to find answers to these contesting questions and to contribute towards “SAFE SOIL FOR A HEALTHIER COMMUNITY”. The conference programme includes social events, such as a welcoming cocktail and a conference dinner function for your relaxation and enjoyment after the stimulating scientific sessions. A sightseeing tour and a game drive are available for those interested.

The organizers envisaged that the Conference will offer a platform for engaging discussions and enhancing co-operation between research teams and all interested stockholders. I hope you find the programme interesting and wish everyone an enjoyable stay in Bloemfontein.

Prof. Linda de Jager

Chair: Local Organizing Committee

 

1st International Conference on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in

Southern Africa

Conference convener
        Prof. G-I. E. Ekosse, Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Conference secretary
        Dr. V. M. Ngole, University of Swaziland, Swaziland

Scientific committee

• Prof. G-I. E. Ekosse (Chairperson)
• Prof. L. de Jager, Central University of Technology, Free State
• Prof. J. Ogola, University of Venda for Science and Technology
• Prof. S. P. Songca, Walter Sisulu University Eastern Cape, South Africa
• Prof. A. Mulaba, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
• Prof. O. Totolo, University of Botswana
• Prof. J. Allotey, University of Botswana
• Dr. L. de Bruyn, University of the Free State, South Africa

International organizing committee

• Dr. C. E. Brand, Central University of Technology, South Africa (Chairperson)
• Prof. S. Mpuchane, University of Botswana
• Dr. M. Ditlhogo, University of Botswana
• Dr. N. Simelane, University of Swaziland, Swaziland
• Dr. G. Peter, University of Swaziland, Swaziland
• Dr. E. Morton, Wabash College, Indiana, USA
• Dr. D. Umesiobi, Central University of Technology, South Africa

Local organizing committee
        Prof. L. de Jager (Chairperson)
          Central University of Technology, South Africa

Event management co-ordinator
       Ms. L. Smith
        Central University of Technology, South Africa

NRF ULD 63583 Project on Human and Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa

Project Leader
        Prof. G-I. E. Ekosse, Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Country Leaders

Botswana
        Prof. S. Mpuchane
        University of Botswana

South Africa
        Prof. L. de Jager
        Central University of Technology, Free State

Swaziland
        Dr. N. Simelane
        University of Swaziland

Project Secretary
        Dr. V. Ngole
          University of Swaziland, Swaziland

DETAILED PROGRAMME / SESSIONS

DAY 1: 23rd OCTOBER 2008

SESSION 1

Chairperson:
        Prof. S. Mpuchane Rapporteur: Dr. V. M Ngole

Table of contents of abstracts

The Nature and Scope of Geophagia as a Scientific Discipline………..............................................................................................……16

Microbiological and Allied Aspects Associated with Geophagia………....................................................................................………….17

The Epidemiology of Geophagia in Humans…………..................…............................................................................................………….18

Geological, Mining, Mineralogical and Beneficiation Observations of Geophagic soils from South Africa……………………….........20

Human Health Aspects Related to Geophagia in South Africa……………................................................................................……….…21

X-ray Diffraction Study of Geophagic Soils from Gaborone, Botswana……................................................................................……….23

X-ray Diffraction Study of Geophagic Soils and Clays from Southern Africa……….............................................................................…24

X-ray Diffraction and Fourier Transform Infra Red Studies of Geophagic Clays from Cameroon and Nigeria……………….......……26

Mineralogy and geochemistry of geophagic materials consumed in the Jos Plateau of Nigeria…….......…………………….....……..27

Using physico-chemical properties of soils ingested to explain some reasons forwarded to justify human geophagia………...……..28

Lead Concentration in Geophagic Soils from Gaborone, Botswana……………............................................................................………30

Photomicrographic Studies of Medicinal and Cosmetic Clays from Southern Africa …............................................................................31

Functional significance of enzootic geophagia in livestock production………………............................................................................…33

Relationships between enzootic geophagia and allelomimetic behaviour of livestock…..........................................................................35

Geophagic clays in Qwaqwa (Free State, South Africa): Perspective of a small scale miner…………....………………..............……37

A socio-economic study of geophagy in the Jos Plateau of Nigeria……...................................................................................…………38

Geophagia in Female Adolescents within Student Populations in Cameroon: A Behavioural and/or Cultural Practice………..…….39

Geophagic clays as commodity and socio-economic implications of its mining in Qwa Qwa…….......…………………...…………….40

Socio-geophagical Trends of Pregnant Women in the Rural Areas of Eastern Cape, South Africa–S. N.Nkanyuza………………...41

Design and construction of cheap mining and processing pieces of equipment for geophagic clays….......................………...……..42

Environmental Health, Nutrition and Haematology Associated with Geophagia…...........................................................................……...43

Nutritional Implication of Geophagia……………………….......................................................................................………………………45

Pharmacological Aspects of Geophagic Practices in Rural Communities in South Africa………..……………………...........……….46

Physiological aspects of Geophagia…………………………………………...........................................................................…………...47

Haematological Abnormalities found in Qwa Qwa Women Practising Geophagia…...............................................................................48

Geophagia in Southern Africa: a historical dimension……………………………...........................................................................……..50

Pica is associated with pregnancy, anaemia and gastrointestinal distress among Zanzibar women……………......…………………51

Pedochemical and Geochemical Characteristics of Geophagic Materials - Case Studies from Limpopo and North West Provinces, South Africa.......................................................................................................................................................................................................53

Perceptions of Physico-chemical Properties of Geophagic Soils by Adults in South Africa…………........……….………………….54

Observations on consumption of termite modified soil (termitaria) by geophagic humans in Southern Africa……………….......…...55

Characteristics and Habits of Geophagic Populations in Four Rural South African Communities: Indigenous Knowledge Systems..56

Geophagia among School Children in Swaziland…..............................................................................…………………………………….58

Rooted to the Soil’: Earth-eating as a Social and Cultural Practice among the BaSotho..........................................................................59

Demographic observations of geophagic populations in Free State and Limpopo Provinces, South Africa………………….............60

The Socio Economic Aspects of Geophagic Women in Southern Africa……..........................................................................………….61

The Socio-cultural Aspects of Geophagia in Southern Africa………………................................................................…………..62

Author page reference………………………………………………………………….........................................................................................63

 

 

 

The Nature and Scope of Geophagia as a Scientific Discipline

J.S. Ogola

School of Environmental Sciences

University of Venda

P/Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950

Keywords: Geophagia, earth substances, clay, toxins.

The term “Geo” is a Greek word meaning “earth” and “-phagia” means “eating”. Thus, “Geophagia” means the eating of earth. The term came into existence around 1840-50. Geophagia is the practice or habit of eating earthy substances, for example, clay or chalk among people of all races. The practice is most common among pregnant women. In parts of Africa, United States and India, pregnant women eat clay to eliminate nausea, apparently because clay coats the gastrointestinal tract and absorbs toxins. Clay may also provide iron and calcium for the development of foetus.

Geophagia has been cited in different ways and forms, for example, as a “diseased appetite” to eat earthy substances, eating earthy substances as a customary practice, and as a dietary practice to augment a scanty or mineral deficient diet with essential minerals or due to illness. The desire to eat earthy substances is instinctive, thus it is a biological or dietary reaction. It is considered as adaptive behaviour.

Since 1850, geophagia has been at the centre of research and debate amongst scientists who question the usefulness versus the harmfulness of the practice of eating earthy substances. Research findings indicate that clays such as bentonite, an aluminium phillosilicate, acts as a digestive aid, whereas, kaolin acts as both a digestive aid and a base for some medicines; and attapulgite is an active ingredient in many antidiarrheal medicines. The paper therefore looks at the nature and scope limitations of geophagia as a scientific discipline.

E-mail: ogolaj@univen.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Microbiological and Allied Aspects Associated with Geophagia

C.L. Obi

Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs and Research

Walter Sisulu University

Mthatha, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Keywords: geophageous behaviour, ingestion, soil, toxigenic bacteria

Geophagia, which refers to the deliberate eating of soil, is considered to be a deviant eating disorder, a sequel to poverty and famine but could also be observed in the absence of hunger and in both scenarios may be associated with high degree of mortality and morbidity in different age groups. The phenomenon has been reported to be common among pregnant women, lactating women, school children, people with psychiatric disorders and is associated with iron deficiency and anaemia although iron supplementation may not affect or influence geophageous behaviour.

Geophagia may be beneficial or harmful. Beneficial aspects include the use of white clay (kaolin) to treat diarrhoea, gastritis, colitis, enhancement of bioactitvities and as well as maintenance of normal intestinal flora by commensal flora found in soil. Harmful effects are also varied. Soil eating may lead to electrolyte disturbance, intestinal obstruction, constipation, hypertension, peritonitis, dental damage, elampsia and iron deficiency.

Microbiological underpinnings include the ingestion of eggs of parasitic worms such as Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati. Following ingestion, the larvae may become blood borne, causing clinical syndrome of visceral larva migrans, characterized by inflammation and eosinophilic granulomas. Ocular larva migrans with clinical picture varying from a solitary retinal granuloma to severe endopthalmitis may also occur. Highly toxigenic bacteria such as Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani, C.botulinum, the causative agents of gas gangrene, tetanus and botulism may be ingested.

It has also been postulated that indirect consumption of soil may pose serious health problems. For example, nitrate run-off and leaching from soil into water bodies may lead to entrophication and colonization by toxic cyanobacteria with ripple medical effects such as gastroentheritis, atypical pneumonia, allergic and irritation reactions and liver diseases. The interplay of factors involved in geophagia, though varied, intricate and researched may not have been fully elucidated. Further concerted efforts aimed at multidisciplinary research are warranted so as to address gaps in the corpus of knowledge on the important subject.

E-mail: lobi@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

The Epidemiology of Geophagia in Humans

S. Anyangwe

World Health Organization Representative in South Africa

351 Schoeman Street

Pretoria 0126, Republic of South Africa

Keywords: anaemia, geophagia, intestinal helminths, iron deficiency, pica

Introduction: Geophagia is the wilful consumption of earth (soil or clay), by humans and animals alike. In humans, it is part of the phenomenon of pica, considered by some to be a psychiatric disorder, which is the purposive and compulsive consumption of non-food substances such as ash, charcoal, chalk, earth (geophagia), ice (pagophagia) and laundry or cooking starch (amylophagia). Geophagia was described in ancient times (as early as around 400 BC) by Hippocrates, and was widely described by Greek, Roman and Arab scientists. From the middle ages, through colonial centuries until the present time, geophagia has continually been described in all continents and it continues to fascinate present day clinicians and scientists.

Methods and findings: Who? Where? When? What? How? These are the basic questions usually asked when determining the descriptive epidemiology of a phenomenon. The socio-demographic and geo-cultural determinants of geophagia are vital because the phenomenon is of potential public health importance. A review of the available literature on the subject was done, and the answers to these questions constitute the main results of the review. Throughout the ages and in all continents, geophagia has been widely described in men and women, the young and the old, rural and urban dwellers, workers and vagrants, free men and slaves, as well as in the rich and the poor alike. However, many recent studies indicate that the phenomenon is very prevalent among school children in several African countries, including South Africa. The phenomenon is said to increase in female children after puberty, while decreasing in boys of the same age group. Geophagia, as well as pica of various other non-food items like ice, paper and starch, is also said to be wide spread among pregnant women, and with increasing gestational age. The soil of choice is usually fine red clay, although chalk is also very widely eaten. The literature describes some medical conditions commonly associated with geophagia, without necessarily determining any causal relationship between the practice and these morbid conditions. Some descriptive studies have reported beneficial mineral supplementation of human blood (especially with calcium), as well as relief of gastro-enteritis. Many more studies have linked geophagia with increased prevalence of intestinal helminths (especially trichuris and ascaris), as well as with mineral and electrolyte imbalances in the blood (low iron and calcium levels) and iron deficiency anaemia. It still remains unclear, however, whether the low blood iron induces craving for soil, or if geophagia causes low iron status because of the interference of the soil with iron absorption in the blood.

Conclusion: Geophagia may not be comparable in morbidity and mortality to the various: communicable and non-communicable diseases that plague the African continent. However, its insidious toll on the blood iron and haemoglobin levels of populations that might already be burdened by other diseases, poverty and malnutrition makes geophagia a potential public health threat in Africa.

E-mail: anyangwes@za.afro.who.int;

Tel: 0027-12-354-8552;
Fax: 0027-12-354-8551

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Geological, Mining, Mineralogical and Beneficiation Observations of

Geophagic soils from South Africa

G-I E Ekosse*, L de Jagerb and V Ngolec

a.Directorate of Research Development, Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape,

South Africa

b. School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein,

South Africa

c. Department of Geography and Environmental Planning, University of Swaziland,

Kweluseni, Swaziland

Keywords: colour, excavation, gritty, hardness, heat treatment, mining, Mangaung, Polokwane, pounding, Qwaqwa, sieving, Sekhukhune

Research into geophagia in southern Africa encompasses fieldwork, administration of questionnaires and structured questions, and laboratory analyses of geophagic soils and clays. This component of the study is part of administered questionnaires dealing with the geological, mining, mineralogical and beneficiation observations of geophagic soils from South Africa. It is based on responses from geophagic adults in Limpopo (Polokwane and Sekhukhune) and Free State (Qwaqwa and Mangaung) Provinces. Questionnaires were administered to adults engaged in geophagic practices from rural (Qwaqwa = 62 respondents and Sekhukhune = 54) and urban (Mangaung = 55 respondents and Polokwane = 55 respondents) settings in the two provinces. Observations of respondents on colour, sources of geophagic soils, degree of softness, mining method, and processing and benefication were subjected to basic descriptive statistics; and results interpreted based on provincial sources and rural/urban settings. Most of the respondents from Free State preferred white geophagic soils whereas those in Sekhukhune liked khaki. Respondents in rural environment collect their geophagic soils primarily from mountains and hills which are close to country rocks; whereas those in urban areas obtain theirs from other sources such as purchasing from vendors. Geophagic soils from Polokwane and Qwaqwa were reported to be very soft. The geophagic soils were collected employing one or more of the following traditional mining techniques: digging, hand grabbing, scraping, and selective hand picking. Most of the soils obtained in Free State were processed through sieving and slurring, but in Limpopo Province and especially at Sekhukhune, the soils were mainly pounded. Little or no heat treatment was given to soils from Limpopo Province. The soft and white and/or kahaki geophagic soils preferred by respondents could be rich in calcite, dolomite, kaolinite, smectite, talc, and micas such as muscovite and illite. Geophagic soils obtained close to rocks, particularly at Qwaqwa, could be inferred to having pedogenetic source associated with the alteration of feldspathic arenites contained in sandstones of the Drakensburg Mountain Chain; and in the case of geophagic soils from Limpopo Province, the minerals genesis could be linked to the feldspars of Turfloop Granite and the micas in metamorphic  ocks of the Limpopo Mobile Belt. The probability of 2.1 clays altering to 1.1 clays should equally be taken into consideration where geophagic soils are of sedimentary origin.

Corresponding author: E-mail: gekosse@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

 

Human Health Aspects Related to Geophagia in South Africa

L. de Jager*a and G-I. E. Ekosseb

a School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free

State, South Africa

b Directorate of Research, Walter Sisulu University for Science, Eastern Cape, South

Africa

Key words: Geophagia, human health, knowledge, attitude and beliefs

Health issues linked to the practice of geophagia will be determined by the individual or community’s social behaviour, environmental factors as well as the genetic composition inherent to the individual or community. Ingestion of soils may play a positive role in health in that it may correct bodily homeostasis by correcting imbalance or deficiency of minerals, supplement elemental nutrients; it might serve as a means to adjust pH in digestive system, and could be used for medicinal purposes (Aufreiters et al., 1997). However, geophagia has been associated with a range of health/medical problems, including iron deficiency anaemia, hypokalaemia, parasitic infections mechanical bowel disorder and perforation (Key et al., 1982).

This study aimed at investigating the knowledge, attitude and beliefs of geophagic adult females in South Africa regarding the practise of geophagia and human health; and to briefly explore their health status. Questionnaires were administered to geophagic individuals in selected communities, both rural and urban. Information regarding the attitude, knowledge and beliefs of these individuals regarding the practice of geophagia with relevance to human health were obtained. Questions explored the participant’s perceptions regarding the possible harmfulness of the practice, the reasons why they consume soil and their knowledge on the contents and possible harmful substances in the soil. Furthermore, questions regarding their current health status were directed to the participants. Applicable statistical analysis were performed; namely ANOVA and/or 95% CI.

Results indicate that the majority (+73%) of respondents believe that the substance they consume may be harmful to their health. Reasons given were amongst others, that it may cause abdominal pains, tooth decay and that it may contain parasites and worms. Results further indicate that they consume clay mostly because they have a craving to consume soil, they consume it during pregnancy (10%) and to a lesser extend for medicinal reasons (10%), as well as to loose weight, for family planning and when they have trouble sleeping. Questions regarding health indicators did not reveal any dominant symptoms or illnesses amongst the respondents.

From the results it is evident that in the communities that were approached in this study, soil is primarily consumed to still a craving. The craving for soil may be traced back to nutritional deficiencies and/or lack of elements in the diet. The work of Hooda et al. (2004) shows that despite being rich in mineral nutrients, geophagic soils can potentially reduce the absorption of micro-nutrients such as Fe and Zn, which may exacerbate their deficiency in geophagic individuals regardless of their dietary Fe and Zn intake. Although the respondents in the present study realize that the practice may be harmful to their health, they still continue to ingest soil.

References

Aufreiters S, Hancock RGC, Mahaney WC, Stamboli-Robb A and Sammugadas K. 1997.
International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition. 48: 293-305.

Hooda PS, Henry CJK, Seyoum TA and Armstrong, LDM. And Fowler, MB. 2004.
Science of the Total Environment. 333, 75-87.

Key Jr, TC, Horger , EO and Miller JM. 1982. Geophagia as a cause of maternal death,
Obstetrics and Gynaecology 60: 525–526.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: ldejager@cut.ac.za;
Tel: + 27 51 507 3123; Fax: + 27 51 507 3354

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

X-ray Diffraction Study of Geophagic Soils from Gaborone, Botswana

O. Totolo

Department of Environmental Science

Faculty of Science

University of Botswana

Keywords: clay minerals, geophagic activities, human beings, kaolinite

According to Wilson (2008) Geophagia is the deliberate and regular consumption of oils, clays, and related materials by animals including human beings. Geophagia is a very common phenomenon in Botswana. Soils are consumed in small quantities by both animals and human beings. In particular, around Gaborone, geophagic activities have been displayed mainly on soils around termite mounds. Pregnant women have been noticed to be more geophagous than other population groups. Although the reasons for this behaviour remain unclear, diverse hypotheses have been proposed to explain it such as mechanical enhancement of digestion, acid buffering capacity, mineral supplementation, adsorption of dietary toxins, and gastrointestinal cytoprotection (Bolton et al., 1998; Gilardi et al., 1999; Klaus and Schmid 1998)

This study investigated five soil samples using x-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques from

around Gaborone where geophagic activities were observed. The main clay minerals in

the soil samples were kaolinite Al2Si2O5 (OH)4; quartz (SiO2); sanidine, potassian (Na,

K) (Si3Al)O8, Calcite (CaCO3); microcline (KAlSi3O8); halloysite Al2Si2O5(OH)4. These

minerals were in various proportions. The dominance of kaolinite, which is a 1:1 clay

mineral indicate that the soils could be poor in nutrients and therefore the social

dimensions of why human beings and animals eat soils might provide a better

understanding of Geophagic behaviour.

References

Wilson, M.J. 2003. Clay mineralogical and related characteristics of Geophagic
    Materials. Journal of Chemical Ecology 29(7): 1525-1547.

Wilson, J.W.; S. Hillier and S. Young. 2008. Clay Mineralogy of Geophagic Materials
   from Tanzania and Other Countries (In preparation).

Bolton, K.A.; V.M. Campbell and F.D. Burton. 1998. Chemical Analysis of Soils of
   Kowloon (Hong Kong) eaten by Hybrid Macaques. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24: 195-205.

Gilardi, J.D.; S.S. Duffey; C.A. Munn and L.A. Tell. 1999. Biochemical Functions of
    Geophagic Parrots: Detoxification of Dietary Toxins and Cytoprotective effects.
    Journal of Chemical Ecology 25: 897-922

Klaus, G. and B. Schmid. 1998. Geophagy at Natural Licks and Mammal Ecology: A
    Review. Mammalia 62 (4): 481-97

E-mail: totoloo@mopipi.ub.bw

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

X-ray Diffraction Study of Geophagic Soils and Clays from Southern

Africa

G-I E Ekossea*, L de Jagerb and V Ngolec

a. Directorate of Research Development, Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape,

South Africa

b. School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein,

South Africa

c. Department of Geography and Environmental Planning, University of Swaziland,

Kweluseni, Swaziland

Keywords: Francistown, feldspar, Gaborone, goethite, Hinckley’s crystallinity indices, kaolinite, Mangaung, Manzini, Mbanbane, mica, Polokwane, Qwaqwa, Sekhukhune

Geophagic soils and clays have varied chemical and mineralogical compositions which impact on their properties and influence human health when consumed. These soils and clays are known to introduce elements of both positive (Ca, Fe, K, Zn) and negative (Pb, Hg) benefits; heavy metals (As, Cr, Cu, Cd, Mn, Ni, Se); and living organisms and geohelminths to the gastro-intestinal system of consumers. Other effects emanating from the consumption of geophagic soils and clays include increase in the gastro-intestinal pH and the binding of plant toxins and pathogens, as well as creating a surfacial coating on the stomach with inferred pharmaceutical implications.

Although the consumption of geophagic soils and clays by humans has been demonstrated archaeologically to be as old as Homo sapiens, it has nonetheless persisted over the centuries. The practice is most common in many indigenous communities and populations especially in developing countries. In Southern Africa, women and children in both urban and rural settings are the key consumers of geophagic soils and clays. Detailed studies regarding the mineralogical nature of the consumed earthy substances are conspicuously lacking. A general assumption of the soils and clays being clayey is recorded in the very scanty existing literature. This paper’s primary objective was to investigate on the mineralogy of geophagic soils and clays occurring in Southern Africa, and document its findings.

Eighty geophagic soils and clays obtained from different localities in Botswana (Gaborone, Francistown, Kanye and Selebi Phikwe), South Africa (Hammanskraal, Shoshunguve, Garankuva, Mangaung, Qwaqwa, Polokwane and Sekhukhune) and Swaziland (Manzini, Mbanbane, and Kweluseni) were mineralogically identified and characterized using X-ray diffraction techniques. Identified minerals contained in samples were measured semi quantitatively. Minerals identified were quartz, SiO2; kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4; mica, (which include muscovite, illite, biotite, lepidolite and chlorite); feldspar, xAl(Al,Si)3O8 (orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase feldspar and feldspathoids); Ca smectite, (NaCa)(Al,Mg)6(Si4O10)3(OH)6-nH2O; goethite, FeO.OH; hematite, Fe2O3; dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2; calcite, CaCO3; pyrophyllite, Al2Si4O10(OH)2; amphibole; talc, Mg3Si4O10(OH)2; and palygorskite, (Mg,Al2)Si4O10(OH)4H2O.

The samples were dominated by quartz, with mean wt %ages ranging from 18.2 for Sekhukhune to 74.1 for Swaziland; kaolinite, with the lowest mean wt %age of 5.1 for Qwaqwa and the highest being 23.7 for Polokwane; mica with mean wt %ages ranging from 6.3 for Mangaung to 41.5 for Polokwane; and feldspar with the lowest mean %age being 0.8 for Mangaung and the highest was 11.7 for Hammanskraal. Other minerals contained in the samples included Ca smectite identified in 50% of the analysed samples with wt %ages reaching 61 for some samples from Sekhukhune and Hammanskraal; goethite found in one sample (3 wt%) from Hammanskraal, four samples (1 – 9 wt%) from Qwaqwa and one sample (9 wt%) from Swaziland; hematite present in one sample each from Botswana (16 wt%) and Swaziland (2 wt%); dolomite occurred in one sample from Sekhukhune (11 wt%), two samples from Polokwane (3 wt% and 27 wt%) and one sample from Mangaung (84 wt %), and calcite found in two samples from Sekhukhune (9 and 16 wt%), three samples from Shoshunguve (2 – 16 wt%), one sample from Hammanskraal (14 wt%) and two samples from Mangaung (6 wt% and 20 wt%). Pyrophyllite was present in two samples from Shoshonguve (2 wt% and 3 wt%); gypsum occurred in one sample from Hammanskraal (3 wt%); amphibole was identified in one sample from Shoshonguve (6 wt%) and two samples from Hammanskraal (1 wt% and 2 wt%); talc occurred in two samples from Botswana (1 wt% each); and palygorskite found in one sample from Shoshonguve (14 wt %).

The major mineral in the studied geophagic soils and clays samples is quartz which cannot be easily altered. Angular quartz particles could be abrasive to the human gatrointestinal tract. Other major mineral constituents are the clay minerals, micas and feldspars. The clay minerals consist of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets. Reactions such as isomorphic substitution occur in the octahedral sheet because it is usually 67% filled providing vacant sites for other ionic reactions. Calcium and Mg from dolomite, calcite, smectite and talc; Fe from goethite and hematite could be supplied from the geophagic soils and clays and absorbed as possible supplements. Further related studies are therefore necessary to establish the morphologies of the quartz particles contained in the the samples. The microbiological status of the soils and clays should also be established prior to any recommendations on their being safe for human consumption.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: gekosse@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS  

 

 

 

X-ray Diffraction and Fourier Transform Infra Red Studies of

Geophagic Clays from Cameroon and Nigeria

N D Jumbam a* and G-I E Ekosseb

a. Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology b. Directorate of Research

Development

Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Keywords: absorption peak, human consumption, impurities

Clays constitute the bulk of geophagic clays and soils; and could be considered as rock, particle size and/or mineral. Clays are formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks containing feldspar and mica. Although several mineralogical identification and characterization studies have been carried out on clays, very sparsely documented evidence exist in scientific literature referring to the mineralogical nature of geophagic clays and soils. In West Africa, and specifically Cameroon and Nigeria where human consumption of geophagic clays is very prevalent, laboratory studies of the materials are lacking. The fourier transform infra red (FTIR) spectrophotometry is one of the reliable techniques in characterizing clays and could be applied to the study of geophagic clays and soils. Its draw back includes absorption peak interferences whereby two or more minerals share same absorption peaks in the high frequency stretching and/or low frequency bending modes. When this occurs, the interpretation of results is affected. In overcoming ambiguity caused by interferences of peaks, the x-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) technique is applied as a complementary tool in the identification and characterization of mineral phase components present in the geophagic clays and soils.

In this study, geophagic clay samples were obtained from vendors in Tiko, Limbe and Yaounde in Cameroon; and Ibadan and Lagos in Nigeria. The samples were subjected to FTIR spectrophotometric and XRPD analyses. Main peaks in the infrared spectra reflected Al-OH, Al-O and Si-O functional groups in the high frequency stretching and low frequency bending modes characteristic for kaolinite; with possible absorption interference peaks for quartz and smectite inferred. No significant differences were observed for samples from both Cameroon and Nigeria. Peak values for kaolinite contained in the samples were compared with those for theoretical values. Closeness of the values to theoretical values inferred higher degree of crystallinity. The XRPD results identified kaolinite as the major mineral phase with confirmed presence of quartz, smectite, and goethite as minor to trace quantities in the samples. The findings suggest that both XRPD and FTIR spectrophotometry techniques could be used as complementary tools in characterizing geophagic clays. Furthermore, the studied geophagic clays from both countries share similar mineralogical properties, and as such could possibly have same nutritional and physiological effects on their consumers.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: njumbam@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS  

 

 

 

Mineralogy and geochemistry of geophagic materials consumed in

the Jos Plateau of Nigeria

T.C. Daviesa*, A.O. Solomona, P. Larb and P.W. Abrahamsc

a. Department of Geology and Mining, University of Jos, PMB 2084, Jos,

Nigeria

b. Department of Microbiology, University of Jos, PMB 2084, Jos, Nigeria

c. Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales,

Aberystwyth, UK

Keywords: Mineralogy, geochemistry, geophagy, health effects

The deliberate consumption of soil (geophagy or geophagia) is common among the Ibo, Tiv and Birom tribes residing on the Jos Plateau of Nigeria. To date, the practice remains underreported and largely misunderstood by many people including those in the scientific and public health communities on the Plateau, and elsewhere where the practice exists. This paper reports the mineralogical and geochemical composition of geophagical materials collected from various source localities, or purchased from markets and shops within the study area. Our results have formed the basis upon which tangible discussions are founded on the medicinal value of geophagic materials consumed on the Plateau, their role as mineral supplements, as well as possible deleterious health effects.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: daviestheo@hotmail.com

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Using physico-chemical properties of soils ingested to explain some

reasons forwarded to justify human geophagia

V. M. Ngolea*and G-I. E. Ekosseb

a. Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, University of

Swaziland, Private Bag 4. Kwaluseni M201, Swaziland

b. Directorate of Research Development, Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela

Drive, P/Bag XI Unitra 5117, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Key words: cation exchange capacity, colour, diarrhoea, soil pH, soil texture, water retention capacity

The practice of geophagia (deliberate ingestion of soil) among humans is very ancient. Reasons put forth to back this practice include the desire for softer and lighter skin, mineral nutrient supplementation, adsorption of plant secondary metabolites and diarrhoea causing enterotoxins, and as a means of dealing with excess acidity in the digestive tract. The suitability of the consumed soil material in performing any of these functions is influenced by its chemical, biological, mineralogical and physico-chemical properties. The main objective of this study was to determine the infer health benefits of geophagic soils from South Africa and Swaziland based on their physico-chemical properties. Soil samples were obtained from vendors at Qwa Qwa, Harrismith and Bloemfontein in South Africa, and from the Manzini market in Swaziland. Some samples were also collected directly from sites at Ezulwini and Mahlanya (Swaziland) and Qwa Qwa where geophagic individuals harvest the soils. Physico-chemical properties determined included pH, texture, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity, colour, organic matter content and water retention capacity. Analyses were carried out according to standard methods described in various texts. Results from particle size analysed indicate that the texture of the soils varied from loam to clay with pH values of between 5.0 and 7.4. Values obtained for electrical conductivity, dissolved salts and organic matter content were generally low but values for water retention capacity of the soils was above 50% for all samples. Based on the various colours of the soils, they contain different forms of iron oxide minerals including haematite (deep red), goethite (Yellowish Brown) with a few having shades of orange which maybe indicative of the presence of lepidocrocite. The relatively high water retention capacity of the soils may increase their effectiveness in the absorption of moisture in the gastrointestinal tract and may be useful in the treatment of diarrhoea. Considering that some of the soils have a considerable amount of sand, their consumption may result in the destruction of tooth enamel as a result of mastication or intestinal obstruction when ingested. Absorption of microbes and toxins in the GI may also be possible because of the clay content. With very low levels of organic matter and moisture content, the probability of potential pathogenic microorganisms surviving and causing infection in the geophagic individual maybe reduced. However, processing the geophagic material into a ball before selling increases the moisture content and organic matter content of the soil (.04% to 1.7 %) and may therefore present some health risk. With the value of ΔpH being negative for all samples, it indicates that these soils are negatively charged and could actually scavenge for cations including iron in the digestive tract.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: ngole@uniswacc.uniswa.sz

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Lead Concentration in Geophagic Soils from Gaborone, Botswana

O. Totolo

Department of Environmental Science

Faculty of Science

University of Botswana

Keywords: heavy metals, geophagic soils, lead (Pb), Soil pollution

Soils around Gaborone have been found to contain significant levels of lead (Pb). This was attributed to the use of unleaded petrol that led to the emission of heavy metals including Pb into the environment. Zhai et al (2003) concluded that the surface area in the soils of Gaborone was polluted by Pb as a result of heavy traffic. Therefore it has become imperative to investigate the concentration of Pb in Geophagic soils from Gaborone Botswana because Pb as a heavy metal is highly poisonous and might affect living organisms including animals and human beings.

Five soil samples were collected from 5 different areas where people usually collected samples for geophagic purposes. The samples were obtained at a soil depth of about 10cm. The soil samples were subjected to chemical analysis for Pb. The results indicate relatively high Pb concentration around the city of Gaborone. This compares relatively well with pollution studies by Zhai et al (2003) that noted that the highest Pb concentration occurring in the city centre is 222mg/kg, which is about 5.7 times the average Pb concentration in rural soil (29mg/kg). The Pb concentration in Gaborone urban soils are significantly higher than that in Lahn River area (32-68mg/kg), the Kpogame’-Hahotoe’ area (15-140mg/kg) or even large urban centres such as Nanjing City (average concentration of different soil units 17.4-58.7 mg/kg), although not as high as the Pb concentration in the Danang-Hoian industrial soils (136.6-742.7mg.kg).

Reference

Zhai M., Kampunzu H.A.B., Modisi M. P. and Totolo O. (2003) Distribution of heavy
metals in Gaborone urban soils (Botswana) and its relationship to soil pollution and
bedrock composition. Environmental Geology 45, 171-180.

E-mail: totoloo@mopipi.ub.bw

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Photomicrographic Studies of Medicinal and Cosmetic Clays from

Southern Africa

S. F. Mpuchanea*, S. H. Coetzeeb, B. A. Gashea, G-I .E. Ekossec and I. Morobea

a. Department of Biological Sciences b. Electron Microscopy Unit

Faculty of Science, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

c. Directorate of Research Development, Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape,

South Africa

Keywords: antifungal activity, anti bacterial activity, colour, Gram positive, Gram negative, kaolinite

This work is built on previous study which revealed clay samples used for medicinal and cosmetic purposes from Swaziland, Botswana and South Africa to have five predominant colours: yellow (34 samples), brown (19), white (13) red (23) and pink (12). Representative samples from the five different colour categories were investigated for consistency in their electron micrography; and microchemical composition based on energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Samples were gently crushed to avoid distorting the natural morphology and placed on a sticky tab in a 10mm Al pin type stub fooled by a thin carbon coating in a polaron E-6700 high vacuum coating unit. A Philips XL30 ESEM at 20 kV and equipped with an EDAX Phoenix Ultra Thin Window (UTW) EDX X-ray system was used for analysis at the eucentric height of 10mm according to manufacturers’ specifications. The samples were given a light gold coating in a SPI Gold plasma coater and imaging was done in LV mode on the ESEM between 0.6-0.9 mBar water vapour pressure. Antibacterial and anti fungal activities were performed with Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Candida albicans and C. mycoderma as test organisms using the plate diffusion method. Halo sizes indicated strength of activity.

Preliminary observations indicate very close structural similarities within groups with similar colours. Sample 1 was yellow and consisted mainly of Al and Si with traces of Na, Mg, K, Ca, Ti, and Fe. Clay samples of this colour category showed no antibacterial or anti-fungal activity. Sample 2 depicted globular booklet structures. The booklet structures were well grown and comprised > 15% of the sample. Most of the clay samples demonstrated moderate activity against both Gram positive and negative bacteria but no anti fungal activity. Sample 3 was brown, consisted mainly of Fe with trace elements of Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ba and Mn. The sample had fine needle-like structures of possibly halloysite which might be embedded in non size needles of goethite. Samples had strong anti Gram negative and moderate activity against Gram positive bacteria and no anti-fungal activity. Sample 4 was pinkish, and had sugar-like large angular crystals, with Na and Cl being the dominant elements. They had strong antibacterial activity (for both Gram positive and negative) and strong anti fungal activity. Sample 5 was white, and depicted thin hexagonal platelets of kaolinite. These white coloured clay samples demonstrated strong anti fungal and anti bacterial activities, similar to the pink clays.

Figure 1: Scanning electron photomicrographs of clays: 1=yellow; 2.= red; 3.= brown; 4.= pink and 5.= white.

*Corresponding author: Tel: +267 7210 5024; Fax: +267 390 9476;
Email:mpuchans@mopipi.ub.bw

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Functional significance of enzootic geophagia in livestock production

L. P. Masia and D. O. Umesiobi*

School of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences

Central University of Technology

Free State, Bloemfontein 9300

South Africa

Keywords: Communal areas, Livestock Production, Mineral Elements, Pregnancy, Questionnaire, Soil Licks, Trace Elements Deficiency

Geophagia, the deliberate ingestion of soil has been classified as a form of Pica. Geophagia in mammals has been associated with deficiencies of elements such as Iron (Fe), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), manganese (Ma), sulphur (Su), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co) and magnesium (Mg) (Kreulen and Jaegar, 1984). Enzootic geophagia has been attributed to lack of minerals in the diet as it was thought that the individual animals seek to replace the missing element by consuming the soil (Reid, 1992). However, it has long been recognized that livestock regularly and intentionally eat soil from specific locations commonly referred to as soil licks (Ayeni, 1971). The reason for this geophagia has remained obscure though it has commonly been supposed that this soil is ingested to supplement minerals deficient in the animal's diet. Studies aimed at identifying a common nutritional feature of these lick soils have proven inconclusive, though soil enrichment with Na has been noted (Kreulen and Jager, 1984) and it has been suggested that this mineral is the main attraction (Tracy and McNaughton, 1995). Geophagia may also be an instinctive behavioural response to gastro-intestinal disturbances (Kreulen, 1985; Johns and Duquette, 1991; Reid, 1992). Geophagic animals commonly pick up the mineral elements from the plough (A-horizon) zone. Pregnancy appears to be an important consideration in the practice of geophagia since the incidence of clay eating is so much greater during this time. Clay ingestion has become associated with trace element deficiency and maternal anaemia has been indicated as a causative factor in the premature and the prenatal mortality. There have been no laboratory studies concerning the effect of clay ingestion during pregnancy. Iron emerges to be the most likely elemental attractants in soils selected for geophagia in pigs and it is understandable as sow’s milk lack iron and copper. Iron appears to be obvious because of the red colour attributed to the high concentration of iron in the soil. Visual cues indicate large concentration of other elements does not appear obvious on the surface of targeted soils. A semi-structured and open-ended questionnaire was designed to provide detailed empirical evidence about enzootic geophagia in livestock at Qwa-Qwa and Thaba- Nchu/Botshabelo communal areas. The individual small scale livestock farmers at the Qwa-Qwa and Thaba-Nchu/ Botshabelo communal areas was selected to be as representative of the livestock farmers as possible. The questionnaire will afford alternative perspectives on some of the key issues that will be tackled through quantitative experimental analysis, particularly on the problems and prospects of enzootic geophagia at Qwa-Qwa and Thaba-Nchu/ Botshabelo communal areas. The questionnaire distribution sites was selected to reflect differences across the communal areas in terms of livestock types (i.e. availability of cattle, sheep, goat and pigs), farm size and specialization, and relationships (e.g. group farming) between the small scale livestock farmers.

*Corresponding author: Email:.umesiobi@cut.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Relationships between enzootic geophagia and allelomimetic behaviour

of livestock

L. P. Masia and D. O. Umesiobi*

School of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences

Central University of Technology

Free State, Bloemfontein 9300

South Africa

Keywords: Allelomimetism, Soil Ingestion, Mineral Elements, Livestock Production, Agro-Geochemical Mapping

Enzootic geophagia (the involuntary or sometimes deliberate craving for and ingestion of soils or pica) occurs in most farm animals. Allelomimetism on the other hand, is an oriented or mimicked behaviour which is the expression of an effort to adapt or adjust to different internal and external conditions, and can be described as an animal’s response to stimulus. Allelomimetic behaviours are actions of animals that are directed toward keeping themselves alive (i.e. individual survival), and for reproduction (or species survival). In this study, we hypothesized that toxins and nutrients in soil interact to influence geophagic and allelomimetic behaviour in farm animals. Based on this hypothesis we predicted that: (1) soil and plant factors influencing the dietary supply of both essential trace elements and toxic metals also influence geophagic-allelomimetic expressions and (2) the magnitude of geophagic-allelomimetic interactions are dependent on the speciation and bioavailability of mineral elements and rate of utilization of each class mineral elements. The source of energy from feed supplements, or other feed additives in the diet, is likely to influence intake and preference for nutrients from the soil in livestock foraging on rangelands. Moreover, ingestion of clay or soils may also influence intake and preference for other plant species or feed supplements. Research has shown that different breeds of livestock have different allelomimetic structures (Arnold et al., 1981), and could therefore, influence geophagic attributes of the animals: Some farm animals such as the Merino sheep are a tightly knit flock and rarely form subgroups. They graze close to each other and disperse into sub-groups only under extreme food shortage, when sex and age groups segregate out. Some animals usually form a few sub-groups and are closely associated when grazing, but not when camping. Other farm animals such as cattle, goats and pigs always form many sub-groups. In cases where sub-groupings occur, the herd maintains a social entity because membership of sub-groups is constantly changing. One important aspect is that, irrespective of breed, animals of the same species drawn from different sources do not readily integrate into a socially homogeneous group (Winfield et al., 1981). This means that if the paddock is large enough, each group will use a different area, even if the food is better in one part. This can lead to some animals being under-nourished and could express more crave for geophagic substances. In a gregarious breed, such as Merinos, the flock moves as a unit and is unsuited to grazing in pastures that are not uniformly abundant. The net effect of such behaviours, particularly on an extensive scale, is a deliberate ingestion of soils and pica. To increase or decrease stocking rate under such condition will not necessarily lead to decline in geophagicallelomimetic expressions by the animals nor will it improve animal production of an area. This is because the non-random spread of animals in that grazing area makes some sectors virtually psychologically unavailable to some individual animals. Some animal species such as sheep have a strong bias for associating with others of their own breed both when grazing and camping (Arnold, et al., 1974), and group identity phenomena develops when small flocks are established. This study explores the opportunities for future research into the application of agro-geochemical maps for the optimization of land use, efficient livestock production, and improving genetic conservation of important livestock species.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: umesiobi@cut.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Geophagic clays in Qwaqwa (Free State, South Africa): Perspective of a

small scale miner

A.F. Mulaba – Bafubiandi* and A. Moloi

Minerals Processing and Technology Research Group

Department of Extraction Metallurgy

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Keywords: geophagic clays, small scale mining, perspective, Qwaqwa

The high level of unemployment and the presence of naturally found resources in Qwaqwa (Free State Province, South Africa); clays being one of them; coupled to the instinct for survival lead members of the local community to add the small scale mining and trading of geophagic clays to their list of commercial activities. Like in any other commercial activity, competition and struggle to emerge characterize the small scale mining operations in general and particularly those of geophagic clays. Legal, technological, financial, marketing, local and “social” political constraints are faced by the illiterate, jobless women and very often single parents. Views from the chiefs, tribal councillors and local government officers do not necessary accord to those of the hungry members of the community. In this paper a local small scale mining operator will discuss the above challenges and suggest possible solutions and recommendations at least from her perspective.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: amulaba@uj.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

A socio-economic study of geophagy in the Jos Plateau of Nigeria

T.C. Daviesa, A.O. Solomona*, P. Larb and P.W. Abrahamsc

d. Department of Geology and Mining, University of Jos, PMB 2084, Jos,

Nigeria

e. Department of Microbiology, University of Jos, PMB 2084, Jos, Nigeria

f. Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales,

Aberystwyth, UK

Keywords : Geophagy, interviews, socio-economic, Jos Plateau

Geophagy (or geophagia), the habit of eating clay or earth is widespread on the Jos Plateau of Nigeria, where, as in many other parts of the world where the practice exists, it is grossly misunderstood. We have undertaken a two phase field study comprising (i) interviews with children and pregnant women to estimate the prevalence, causative factors, and amounts/type of soils consumed, and (ii) investigations on the marketing of geophagical soils, quantifying the volume of production and the economics and participants of the distribution channels. Of the several tribes residing on the Plateau, geophagy is most commonly seen among the Ibo, Tiv and Birom tribes, up to 75.6 % of whose total population of pregnant women and secondary schoolgirls consume some form of earth material. Most geophagists on the Plateau are found to be pregnant women, at various stages of pregnancy. From the shops and markets identified following the first phase of the field study, the soil commodity was traced back through the marketing chain to the ultimate source of the material, thus allowing the volume of soil production to be established, and the economics evaluated. Among other things, the findings show that the cottage industry of soil production and marketing provides an important supplement for low-income families, and is a benign trading system.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: daviestheo@hotmail.com

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Geophagia in Female Adolescents within Student Populations in

Cameroon: A Behavioural and/or Cultural Practice

M. L. Dikoa* and A. C. Dikob

a. Geology, Mining and Minerals Programs, University of Limpopo, South Africa

b. Department of Biochemistry, University of Buea, South West Province, Cameroon

Keywords: calabar chalk, Cameroon, earthy material, health risks, peer pressure

Geophagia, the persistent craving and compulsive eating of earthy material also known as dirt (clay, soil or chalk) is a culturally sanctioned practice common to the world’s poorer or more tribally oriented people. A preliminary study was undertaken to investigate the incidence of geophagia among female adolescents within Molyko-Buea, Cameroon as well as to determine possible contributory factors that may have led to this practice. Closed-ended questionnaires were administered to 40 randomly selected adolescents within the study area. Results from descriptive statistical analysis revealed that all respondents ate dirt (60 % < thrice a week, 33 % > thrice a week and 3 % daily), with an estimated average daily intake of 50g. Approximately 67.5 % of the respondents consumed unprocessed dirt, 27.5 % in combination (usually ground with sugar) and 5 % processed. Forty percent preferred it white, 52.5 % brown and 7.5 % red. Ten percent of the respondents where encouraged by their mothers to ingest dirt, 60 % as a result of peer pressure whereas 30 % was out of personal desire. None of the respondents ate dirt as a source of vitamins, 12.5 % was engaged in the habit due to depression, 55 % for fun and 32.5 % as a result of other factors such as native customs, loss of appetite and nausea. Peer pressure as opposed to mother/daughter sharing mechanism was the main contributory factor. Being an African society with numerous myths surrounding geophagia, pregnancy and delivery, the engagement of female adolescents in the consumption of dirt is an accepted practice. For these geophagic individuals, craving for dirt is neither for customs, nor as a source of vitamins but for the fun, exposing them to possible health risks.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: dmlarry2000@yahoo.com

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Geophagic clays as commodity and socio-economic implications of its

mining in Qwaqwa

Antoine F. Mulaba – Bafubiandi

Minerals Processing and Technology Research Group

Department of Extraction Metallurgy

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Keywords: g commodity, geophagic clays, socio-economic impacts, small scale mining

Soil and clay eating is an habit found in many African communities (Luoba et al.; 2004; Abrahams and Parsons, (1997). In Southern Africa people have been found eating clays; and some using them as cosmetics and / or for curative ( Mpuchane et al. 2008) and mystic / metaphysic reasons as during traditional healers’ practices. Irrespective of the principal motivation (different from its use in construction) for the consumption of clay by humans and some animals, geophagic clays are ably identified and consumed by those communities as any other conventional commodity. With an existing and selected demand its price is determined by its market (Wikipedia, online). Found naturally and mostly in association with other clays and clays minerals like kaolinite, illite, smectite etc…., geophagic clays are generally mined in small scale, with low capital investment and little technology leading to a very low entrance barrier; nevertheless still not everybody is dealing with the mining, processing and trading of this commodity. This presentation will focus on economic, cultural, mystical or metaphysical incentives and implications of the mining at small scale level the specific geophagic clays in Qwaqwa.

References

Abrahams P W and Parsons J.A., (1997) Geophagy in the tropics: an appraisal of three
   geophagical materials, Environmental geochemistry and health, 19 p 19-22.

   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/commodity, accessed on 27 September 2008

Luoba AI, Geissler P.W., Estambale B, Ouma JH, Magnussen P., Alusala D., Ayah R.,
    Mwaki D., Friis H, (2004), Geophagy among pregnant and lacting women in Bondo
    district, western Kenya, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and
    Hygiene , 98, p.734-741.

Mpuchane S.F., Ekosse G.E., Gashe B, Morobe I, Coetzee SH, (2008) Mineralogy of
    Southern Africa medicinal and cosmetic clays and their effects on the growth of selected
    test microorganisms. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 17(5) 547-557.

E-mail: amulaba@uj.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Socio-geophagical Trends of Pregnant Women in the Rural Areas of

Eastern Cape, South Africa

S. N.Nkanyuzaa* and N. A. Adonisb

a. Department of Psychology b. Department Environmental & Social Studies Faculty

of Education, Faculty of Education, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, Eastern Cape,

South Africa

Keywords: socio-environmental influences, preventive measures, human resources and globalization

The Eastern Cape mostly rural in nature has a diverse population of approximately 4.5 million with unique and differing cultures and customs. Women form the majority of this population, where the culture and customary practices have been passed down from generation to generation. However with society changes, influences of the Western world and globalization, culture and customary practices have been diluted, distorted and even forgotten. This is most evidence in the customary practices of pregnant women who would be catered for at their maternal home until delivery of the child. Practices that were associated the cravings of pregnant women who eat particular foods including plants, flora and barks of trees and specific soil types. Associated with the cravings of expectant mothers would be the right nutrients and building of immune system, according to definitive guidelines. After the birth of the child and especially during the first few years of the child, other preventive measurements were taken to protect the child from ailments and diseases. The preventive measures and cures were taken from the surrounding environment and the natural resources available. Thus the environment is crucial to the people, as the people are intertwined with the environment, in which nature plays a vital purpose. As Matanzima (in Broster 1976), puts it, “the preservation and conservation of human culture is as important as the conservation of human resources”. As researchers, the more we come to understand the cultural aspects of people, the more knowledge and awareness we will obtain about the contributing factors of heredity and environment.

As there has been minimum attention or no attention of documented research in the above area, this paper will discuss contemporary practices and the attitudes towards soil consumption amongst pregnant women in the Eastern Cape with a bias towards rural communities in the Transkei region.

Reference:

 Broster, J.A. (1976). The Tembu. Their Beadwork, Songs and Dances. Purnell and Sons (PTY) Ltd.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: snkanyuza@yahoo.co.uk

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Design and construction of cheap mining and processing pieces of

equipment for geophagic clays

A.F. Mulaba – Bafubiandi* and B. Kasanda

Minerals Processing and Technology Research Group

Department of Extraction Metallurgy

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Keywords: Geophagic clay, kaolinite, small-scale mining, design, equipment, mineralogy

Geophagic clays in South Africa have been used not only for ingestion but also for cosmetic applications. Clays are purposefully selected and deliberately ingested after digging them up. Their processing includes breaking down the mined pieces and milling/grinding them using simple tools. Sometimes, they are salted and /or partially roasted. Small scale miners see these activities as a potential business opportunity that can give them the needed income. As geophagic clays are rich in calcium, sodium, and iron, one wonders whether the mineralogical composition hence the taste and the possible application form the selection criteria by the local small-scale miners or eaters/users. For these clays to be used for commercial purposes their production and selection (which so far is limited to the expert’s eye and tasting ability) must be designed for product consistency and fitness for purpose. The selected geophagic clays in South Africa occur as pockets between 1 m to 10m from the surface within the Kaolinite bodies. Currently in Qwaqwa, small scale miners, mostly women and children use picks and shovels to “mine” the geophagic clay pockets and break/mill the clay using hammers and mortar depending on the final and end user’s application. This paper will report on the design and construction of cheap pieces of equipment for the mining and the processing of these geophagic clays. The mining methods and the processing techniques of these geophagic clays as conducted in the Qwaqwa area will be analysed. The optimization of the mining and processing equipment will be discussed.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: amulaba@uj.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Environmental Health, Nutrition and Haematology Associated with

Geophagia

L. de Jager*a and G-I. E. Ekosseb

a School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free

State, South Africa

b Directorate of Research, Walter Sisulu University for Science, Eastern Cape, South

Africa

Keywords: Geophagia, environmental health, nutrition, haematology

The definition of Environmental health is as follow: “Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by physical, biological, social and psychosocial factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those factors in the environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of present and future generations” (WHO, 1993). The aim of the study was to conceptualize the environmental health issues related to the practise of geophagia in Qwa Qwa, South Africa with specific focus on general health, haematological and nutritional status of adult females.

Adult females in the Qwa Qwa region of South Africa, who consume soil, were randomly selected and asked to complete a questionnaire on their knowledge, attitudes and beliefs regarding the practice of geophagia (phase one), as well as quantitative food frequency, anthropometry and socio-demographic questionnaires (phase two). In addition, peripheral venous blood samples were obtained from these individuals that were annualized for specific biological parameters. Qualitative observations regarding the environment of geophagia mining areas were recorded.

Results of phase one indicate that 61% of the respondents daily consume soil. Reasons why they consume soil varied, but addiction and craving, as well as standard practise were mentioned in the majority of cases. Thirty eight percent of the respondents reported that they experience illnesses such as headaches  (30%) and dizziness (8%), chest pains(21%) coughs and muscle pains (4%). The number of still born children and children born with abnormalities were less than 4%. Qualitative observations regarding the environment of geophagia mining areas indicated that these sites are not always optimally hygienic.

Environmental factors associated with the practise of geophagia that may be detrimental to human health include biological factors (e.g. micro-organisms like bacteria, viruses, mono-cellular agents can be ingested, e.g. worms and toxoplasmosis infection), chemical factors (halogens, corrosive materials and metals found in soil) and physical factors (radioactive substances). Assimilation of results obtained from questionnaires on the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs as well as on food frequency and haematological parameters of geophagic females will facilitate a better understanding of certain health aspects related to geophagia such as anaemia and nutrition and the impact of the environment on the above mentioned.

WHO. 1993. Global Strategy: Health, Environment and Development: Approaches to Drafting Country-Level Strategies for Human Well-being Under agenda 21. Geneva: World Health Organization.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: ldejager@cut.ac.za;
 Tel: + 27 51 507 3123; Fax: + 27 51 507 3354

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Nutritional Implication of Geophagia

A. van Onselen*a, F. E. van Schalkwykb, L. de Jagerc, and G-I. E. Ekossed

a. Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Central University of Technology,

Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa

b. Department of Visual Technology and Visual Art, Central University of Technology,

Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa

c. School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free

State, South Africa

d. Directorate of Research, Walter Sisulu University for Science, Eastern Cape, South

Africa

Keywords: clays, nutritional status, soils, toxic constituents, women

Geophagia has been related to nutritional, psychological, cultural, medical, social, taste, spiritual, religious, ritual and physiological needs. In some cultures soils are believed to have magical powers. Clays are used by pregnant and lactating women as a calcium source which is believed by some to be invaluable especially where individuals are lactose intolerant or have an iron deficiency. Clays have also been used to reduce abdominal pain caused by hookworms, to reduce or ease hunger pangs, to soothe heartburn and nausea and to satisfy cravings since soils are supposed to taste good. Despite the claimed benefits, geophagia may also be harmful to humans in terms of microbiological and environmental health aspects. Geophagia has been criticized as unhygienic, exposing consumers to toxic constituents such as heavy metals and parasites and has been reported to contribute to the helminth load when soils with infective stages of parasites are consumed. Despite the possible advantages and disadvantages of geophagia and taking into account that this practice occurs commonly, limited research has been undertaken in this regard. The main aim of this study is to determine the odds ratio associated with the practice of geophagia on the nutritional status of woman in Qwa Qwa, South Africa. The variables to be determined to meet the objectives of this study in phase two include socio-economic status, anthropometric measurements, dietary intake, and blood parameters. Descriptive, preliminary results pertaining the nutritional and anthropometric results of the pilot study done in Qwa Qwa will be presented.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: fvschalk@cut.ac.za;
Tel: +27 51 507 3383; Fax: +27 51 507 3293

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Pharmacological Aspects of Geophagic Practices in Rural Communities

in South Africa

N L Katende-Kyenda

Dept of Pharmacology

Faculty of Health Sciences

Walter Sisulu University

Mthatha Campus, Eastern Cape

Keywords: endoparasitism, kaolinitic clays, pharmacological aspects, traditional societies

Geophagia is an ancient practice that is still widely used and seen in many parts of the world especially in traditional societies of Africa. What is mostly used in this practice are soils that are selected for their particular qualities such as flavours, and plasticity. These soils are chosen from certain sites and thereafter consumed for various reasons that range from religious to medicinal; some are even used as part of a regular diet in the homes. Geophagia has been criticized as being unhygienic. However there is evidence that these soils can be a valuable source of trace elements like iodine, zinc, copper, fluoride etc.… as well as several other nutrients.

It has also been reviewed that the consumption of geophagic soils in India is associated to therapeutic mediator of endoparasitism. This has been reported on monkeys who after eating the soils were proven to contain large amounts of koalinitic clays. Kaolin is a pharmaceutical product known as Kaopectate, commonly used in humans to treat diarrhoea and intestinal upsets.

So far there exists little or no documented reports on the implementation of this practice in South Africa; therefore the aim of this study will be to establish the use of Geophagic practices, and their pharmacological aspects in the rural communities in South Africa. Results from the survey will impact positively on the alternative traditional management of some ailments in South Africa.

E-mail: kyendanorah@yahoo.com

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Physiological aspects of Geophagia

BN Nkeh-Chungaga*, C Sewani-Rusikea and A Chungagb

aDepartment of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences,

Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa

bP.O.Box 1407, Mthatha, South Africa

Key words: deficiency, calcium, consumption, clay, iron, micronutrient, zinc

Geophagia is the deliberate consumption of soil, clay or earth. It is reported all over the world though it seems to be a culturally sanctioned practice in many parts of South Africa, where it is common especially during pregnancy. Although the real causes of geophagia are unknown, it has been associated with micronutrient deficiency particularly iron deficiency anaemia. Complications of geophagia are rare but may be closely linked to the quality and amount of material ingested. Common examples which have been reported include parasitic infestation, electrolyte disturbance, intestinal obstruction as well as intestinal perforation and peritonitis.

Several hypotheses have been put forward to explain geophagia: protection by adsorption of toxic substances consumed, acquisition of iron and calcium in micronutrient deficiency and control of diarrhoea. However, most of these soils may be contaminated with faecal material and may inhabit nematode cysts and are thus a potential source of infestations. The solubilization of iron from food occurs at low pH of about 1.5 which is normally found in the stomach and duodenum, clays tend to buffer stomach acidity and thus reduce iron solubilization as well absorption. The bioavailability of calcium has been studied by in vitro methods and shown to be adequate though no in vivo studies have been done in human and animal models. The pH of the stomach is also an important factor in that most microbes and parasites grow and proliferate at higher pH values compared to stomach pH. The buffering afforded by clays therefore favours their growth.

From the above information it is clear that the consumption of clay may eventually lead to iron and possibly zinc deficiency especially if this practice is by people from low socio-economic backgrounds who are predisposed to micronutrient deficiencies. Another possible cause of anaemia associated with clay consumption could be the indirect result of nematode infestation. Detoxification by adsorption of poisonous substances from the gastrointestinal tract is however a potential useful aspect of clay consumption. Review on geophagia research to date shows very few studies that apply an in vivo model to study physiological effects of clay consumption. Such studies address bioavailability and the effects of circulating levels of specific minerals. Because the intestinal system of pig is similar to that of human, a pig model may be ideal for such a study. Feeding studies, growth assessment, faecal analysis, blood sampling and analyses would give an insight into the physiological aspects of geophagia possibly applicable to humans.

*corresponding author: E-mail: bnkehchungag@wsu.ac.za.
 Tel: (+27) 47 502 2758, Fax:
        (+27) 47 502 2794

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Haematological Abnormalities found in Qwa Qwa Women Practising

Geophagia

L.F. Mogongoaa*, C.E. Branda**, L. de Jagera and G-I.E. Ekosseb

a School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein

d Directorate of Research, Walter Sisulu University for Science, Mthatha

Keywords: geophagia, haematological abnormalities, anaemia, iron deficiency, ferritin

Introduction: A pilot study was done on women, living in Qwa Qwa, consuming soil. These women were identified by means of an interview questionnaire during phase one of the international project.

Aim of the study was to determine the haematological abnormalities in Qwa Qwa women consuming soil.

Method: Blood samples were collected at the residents of 12 women consuming soil. Simultaneously blood samples were collected from five women, not consuming soil, living in the same vicinity. Full blood counts and iron status were determined on both the geophagia group and the control group.

Results and discussion: The mean age of the geophagia group was 34 years and that of the control group was 32 years. The mean red blood cell counts, haemoglobin values and the red blood cell indices gave slightly higher values in the control group in comparison to the geophagia group. Major differences were obtained between the mean values of the total serum iron, transferrin saturation and ferritin where the control group gave average values double the values of the geophagia group. The mean serum total iron of the control group was 14.22 μmol/L and that of the geophagia group was 6.89 μmol/L. Mean transferrin saturation was 23.34% in the control group and 11.04% in the geophagia group. Ferritin gave the same phenomenon with an average value of 19.04 ng/ml determined in the control group and 8.45 ng/ml in the geophagia group. One person in the geophagia group was a complete outlier and was therefore excluded from the study.

The people consuming soil were inclined to be anaemic which is confirmed by the lower haemoglobin, iron and ferritin values. Forty five percent of the geophagic group could therefore be classified as having iron deficiency anaemia while 55% can be classified as iron depleted. In six of these geophagia cases the morphology of the red blood cells presented with hypochromic microcytic cells that are typical in iron deficiency anaemia.

Conclusion: From this pilot study it can be concluded that women in Qwa Qwa, consuming soil, are inclined to have iron deficiency anaemia. A follow-up study with a larger number of participants is foreseen. It is necessary to determine whether they were iron deficient prior practising geophagia or whether anaemia is the cause of practising geophagia.

*Presenting author: E-mail: lmogongo@cut.ac.za ;
 Tel: +27 51 5073118;
Fax: +27 51 5073354

**Corresponding author: E-mail: cbrand@cut.ac.za;
Tel: +27 51 5073369;
Fax: +27 51 5073354

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Geophagia in Southern Africa: a historical dimension

E. Morton

Byron K. Trippett Assistant Professor

Art Department

Wabash College, Crawfordsville

Indiana, USA

Keyword: anti-diarrheal agent, kaolin, pregnancy, termite mounds, women

The practice of eating clay, known as either pica or geophagia, is common to most forms of animals as well as to human beings on all five continents. Most of the investigators of this phenomenon have maintained that it is very rare in southern Africa, and can be found primarily in tropical Africa instead. The contention of this paper, however, is that eating clay is widespread in southern Africa. It is an activity most frequently found in areas with termite mounds and kaolin deposits, but both urban and rural populations also utilize many other sources.

In Africa, the eating of clays is generally associated with pregnancy and the resulting need for extra calcium and iron. Most researchers on the subject have maintained that there is an absence of geophagia in southern Africa, which can be explained by the region’s tsetse-free savannahs where cattle-raising and thus access to dietary calcium and iron is easy. What this assumption fails to address, however, is the unequal distribution of cattle in most pastoralist societies. Milk and meat are not necessarily available to all peasants in cattle-rich areas. There is no reason to believe that large numbers of pregnant women from the urban and rural poor in southern Africa have any less need to clay dietary supplements than women in tropical Africa.

Not surprisingly then, the relatively few studies of geophagia in southern Africa, have in fact found it to be commonly practised, especially amongst pregnant women. In most cases, nutrient-rich termite clays are the most common source of earth, providing dosages of most minerals at or above the recommended dietary allowances advocated by western medicine. In this region, clays are also a common anti-diarrheal agent used in traditional medicine and are usually mixed with water and drunk in a manner similar to kaopectate. Less commonly, there have been magical and religious reasons for eating earth, related to fertility, healing, long life and ancestral spirit appeasement.

Although by most accounts geophagia is more prevalent in rural areas, it has nevertheless moved to the cities as peasants have urbanized across southern Africa. Studies in Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Harare, for example, have shown a high incidence of urban dwellers practising geophagia. Most significantly, available literature on geophagia in southern Africa makes it clear that the extent of its practice has been largely underestimated in the past.

E-mail: mortone@wabash.edu;
Tel: 001-765-6351

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Pica is associated with pregnancy, anaemia and gastrointestinal distress

among Zanzibar women

S. L. Young a*, S. M. Ali b, J. Wilsonc, S. Hillierc, K. M. Rasmussend, R. J. Stoltzfusd

a University of California, Berkeley, School of Public Health, 230 University Hall,

Berkeley, California, USA

b Pemba Health Laboratory-Ivo de Carneri. P.O.Box 122, Chake Chake, Pemba Island,

Zanzibar, Tanzania.

cMacaulay Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, Scotland, UK

dCornell University, Division of Nutritional Sciences, International Nutrition, Savage

Hall, Ithaca, New York, 14853, USA

Keywords: anaemia, mineralogy, nutrition, pica, pregnancy, Tanzania, Zanzibar, gastrointestinal distress, micronutrient

Background: Pica, the purposive consumption of non-food substances such as earth and raw starches, is not well understood. Three hypotheses about the causes of pica have been posited: hunger, micronutrient deficiency and need for protection against toxins and pathogens. This paper describes correlates of pica in cross-sectional data in an obstetric population.

Methods: Pregnant women (n=2368) were recruited from 8 representative public health clinics on Pemba Island, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, food intake, geophagy (earth consumption) and amylophagy (raw starch consumption) were collected by questionnaire during the women’s first obstetric clinic visit. Data were collected on anthropometry, iron status, malaria, geohelminth burden and gastrointestinal morbidities. Samples of geophagic substances were collected in a subset of women for physical, chemical and mineralogical analyses. Differences in pica behaviour by hunger, micronutrient status, gastrointestinal distress and pregnancy status were examined using appropriate statistical tests (Chi-square for differences categorical independent variables, two-tailed Student’s t test for differences in continuous independent variables, simple linear or logistic regression to test for interactions, and random-effect, multivariate logistic models).

Results: Pica behaviour was reported by 40.1% of these women, with amylophagy reported by 36.3% and geophagy by 5.2%. There was a striking and additive relationship of geophagy and amylophagy with both lower haemoglobin concentration and iron deficiency anaemia after adjusting for known confounding factors. Pica was significantly positively associated with age, late pregnancy vitamin use, Trichuris and hookworm infection and gastrointestinal morbidities. It was negatively associated with iron intake and dietary diversity. Pica was not associated with differences in socio-economic status, reproductive history, intensity of helminth infection or malaria infection. Soil samples contained micronutrients important to human health (Zn, Ca, Fe) although their concentrations were too low to be of biological significance. The sole commonality among the geophagic samples was the presence of a kaolin mineral.

Conclusions: Pica and iron deficiency anaemia are strongly inversely related. Whether this relationship is causal, or whether both pica and anaemia are caused by another factor, merits further investigation because of the magnitude of this association. The micronutrient and protection hypotheses are both supported by the data, but the hunger hypothesis is not.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: sera@younglucks.com or serayoung@berkeley.edu
Tel: +1(607) 351-0172, Fax: +1 (510) 643-6981

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Pedochemical and Geochemical Characteristics of Geophagic Materials

- Case Studies from Limpopo and North West Provinces, South Africa

P.W. van Deventer* & J.M. van Deventer

North West University

Potchefstroom Campus

North West Province, South Africa

Keywords: nutrient deficiencies, nutritional values, pedochemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, forage, essential trace elements

The phenomenon of eating soil by animals and humans is known as geophagia. The real need or desire for this appetite is most probably a combination of specific nutrient deficiencies or a crazy desire for a specific element. Geophagia is well known in the animal world where both domestic and wild animals eat soil. It is more common in winter time when summer range forage is dormant and therefore it is assumed that in most cases it is due to poor quality of the forage and or a deficiency in the forage diet. This study is about domestic animals e.g. cattle and wild animals e.g. impala, kudu and zebra eating soil of a specific locality on farms in the Limpopo Province in South Africa. The hypothesis is that the geology is the source material for elements in the soil and that the soil is the source material for the biochemistry of the forage. The geochemistry and pedochemistry factors are under the influence of complicated physio-chemical and environmental factors such as pH, redoxpotential, soil physics and climate to influence the ultimate end product i.e. biochemistry and forage trace element concentration. A comparison study was done on another case of geophagia in the North West Province on a different soil and geology source material. In both cases the soil of the geophagia site was sampled together with soil in the neighbouring area where geophagia is not taking place. Plant tissue material was also sampled and a trace element and heavy metal analyses where done. The specific lithology and pedology of the two sites were studied and integrated with the analytical data. The results reveal that in both cases the geophagia sites have much higher concentrations of sodium and chloride compared to the off-sites. The geology and soils of both areas have a relative low concentration of base elements e.g. calcium, magnesium and potassium. Other essential trace elements such as magnesium, calcium, iron and strontium also show positive correlations. Other assay results which also show some positive correlations are pH and electrical conductivity. On both geophagia sites the salt content (electrical conductivity) and alkalinity (pH) where higher in comparison with the neighbouring sites where no geophagia is taken place. The conclusion is made that there is a definite positive correlation between the affinity to eat soil at specific sites and certain element concentrations.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: 10058591@nwu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Perceptions of Physico-chemical Properties of Geophagic Soils by

Adults in South Africa

V. M. Ngolea*, G-I. E. Ekosseb, and L de Jagerc

a. Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, University of

Swaziland, Private Bag 4. Kwaluseni M201, Swaziland

b. Directorate of Research Development, Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela

Drive, P/Bag XI Unitra 5117, Eastern Cape, South Africa

c. School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Private Bag X20539

Bloemfontein 9300, Free State, South Africa

Keywords: dominant colour, geophagic individuals, soil moisture status

Research on Geophagia in animals and humans would not be complete without characterizing the different types of materials ingested in terms of their physical, chemical and biological properties because these properties aid researchers gain insight into the rationale behind this unusual practice. The reliability of results from such characterization depends on whether the samples analysed are representative of those consumed in terms of type, quantity and condition. As part of a research on human and enzootic geophagia in Southern Africa, a survey was conducted among some geophagic adults from Limpopo Province and Free State both in South Africa in an endeavour to guide samples collection and preparation prior to analyses of soils ingested by geophagic individuals in these regions. Sixty two and 55 adult females from Qwa Qwa and Mangaung respectively in the Free State of South Africa and 55 and 54 adult females from Polokwane and Sekhukhane areas respectively in the Limpopo Province of South Africa were interviewed in this study. Information solicited from the respondents included place, method, and depth of soil collection, colour, feel, and soil moisture status of the soil at time of collection and the type of processing and treatment to which the soil is subjected before ingestion. Responses obtained from the geophagic adults indicated that most of the soils eaten were either dug, scrapped or hand-picked from the mountains and river bed and felt silky, gritty or sticky at time of collection. In the Free State, the depth of collection ranged from 0 – 150 cm whereas in Limpopo province, soils were collected from depths ranging from 1 – 20 cm. The dominant colour of the soils preferred according to respondents varied with regions, being mainly whitish in Qwa Qwa, whitish  and reddish in Mangaung, and khaki and whitish in Sekhukhane and Polokwane. Respondents also indicated that it did not matter whether the soil was wet or dry when collected and that there is very little processing of the soil before eating. Where processing was done, it is mainly pounding in the Free State and grinding in Limpopo province. Between 40 -50 % of the respondents in both Qwa Qwa and Mangaung and < 3% in both Polokwane and Sekhukhane indicated some form of heat treatment on the soils before eating. Air-drying and grinding with mortar and pestle are recommended as the main processing method of geophagic soil from these regions prior to analyses or storage.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: ngole@uniswacc.unisw.sz

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Observations on consumption of termite modified soil (termitaria) by

geophagic humans in Southern Africa

M. Ditlhogoa*, G-I. E. Ekosseb, L. de Jagerc and V. Ngoled

a. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

b. Directorate of Research, Walter Sisulu University for Science, Eastern Cape, South

Africa

c. School of Health Technology, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free

State, South Africa

d. Department of Geography and Environmental Planning, University of Swaziland,

Kweluseni, Swaziland

Keywords: human geophagia, termitaria, termite mounds

This paper presents findings on the ecological aspects of the broader project on ‘human and enzootic geophagia in South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland’. The paper reports on the prevalence of the eating of termitaria (termite modified soil, either from mounds or trees) by geophagic humans in southern Africa. Information was collected by the use of questionnaires. Results presented in this paper are however from four sites in South Africa only (Qwa Qwa, Mangaung, Sekhukhune and Polokwane). In total, the number of questionnaires administered in each site was 62 for Qwa Qwa, 55 for Mangaung, 55 for Sekhukhune and 50 for Polokwane. The frequencies of people who indicated that they consumed termitaria were very low considering the number of questionnaires administered in each site (Qwa Qwa = 3, Mangaung = 3, Sekhukhune = 10 and Polokwane = 10). This indicates that in South Africa, termitaria are not the main source of geophagic materials. The results also indicate that within South Africa, the importance of termitaria as a source of geophagic material differs from region to region. Consumption of termitaria was relatively more prevalent in Polokwane and Sekhukhune than in Qwa Qwa and Mangaung. For those people who consume termitaria, most of them got it from termite mounds than from trees, and they preferred old mounds to new ones. Most of the mounds used were conical in shape, suggesting that they were probably made by the subfamily Macrotermitinae. Most of these mounds were found in hilly areas in both Sekhukhune and Polokwane.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: ditlhogo@mopipi.ub.bw

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Characteristics and Habits of Geophagic Populations in Four

Rural South African Communities: Indigenous Knowledge Systems

S. F. Mpuchanea*, S. H. Coetzeeb and B. A. Gashea

a. Department of Biological Sciences b. Electron Microscopy Unit

Faculty of Science, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

Keywords: geophagic populations, storage period, taste, traditional reasons

Four rural geophagic populations from Qwa Qwa, Mangaung, Sekhukhwane and Polokwane were consulted on their various habits in supporting their geophagic practice. These ranged from the types of substances used, manner of consumption, traditional names, where substances were obtained , brand names, prices paid, colour preferences, storage methods and length of storage.

The common forms of substances consumed were soil (range from 46-52%) and clay (15- 46%) (See Fig below). Most of the populations consumed dry substances (62 – 100%) and, while a significant number sourced the substances from the wild (56 -70%), some bought their substances (22-44%). Taste seems the commonest reason why most populations (51-91%) consumed substances as opposed to traditional reasons (0-8%). Due to language differences in the four populations, there were varying names for the substances. Te word ‘mobu’ (soil) was the most commonly used by most (except the Polokwane group at 7%). In Qwa Qwa and Mangaung, over 70% referred to the product as mobu.

On colour preferences, whitish was the most used (by 19-60%) and brown the least use (by 0 -17%) in the population surveyed. While there was a variation in cost from 50 cents to R5.00/ handful, most users paid between R1.00 and R3.00 per handful. Most users did not know the brand names of the substances purchased. Storage periods of substances varied from 1 day to 90 days depending on the individuals.

The differences in the habits of the four populations studied suggests a need for a wider study that covers more traditional groupings to appreciate a regional picture and to understand the reasons for the disparities in the habits of geophagic populations of Southern Africa. Knowledge of how the soils and clays work is also critical to understand, educate, promote and commercialize geophagia in the region.

    Fig. 1. Preferences for Substances Consumed by Geophagous populations (in % of Populations ).

*Corresponding author: Tel: +267 7210 5024;
Fax: +267 390 9476;
E-mail: mpuchans@mopipi.ub.bw

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Geophagia among School Children in Swaziland

N. O. Simelane* and G. Peter

Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning

University of Swaziland

Kwaluseni , Swaziland

Keywords: de-worming, helminthic, knowledge transfer, millennium development goals, school-based interventions

Countries in Southern Africa are increasingly being challenged to meet the United Nations stated Millennium Development Goals. One of the challenges is that many school-age children in Africa are infected with intestinal parasitic helminths. Helminth infections have been shown to cause iron deficiency anaemia, reduce growth and negatively affect cognition. In 2004 countries in Southern Africa developed a regional strategic framework to address the health of children in primary schools. The aim was to work towards meeting the second Millennium Development Goal (MDGs), which aims to ensure that all by 2015 all children; boys and girls alike are able to complete a full cycle of good primary education. In 2005, the Ministry of Education started a de-worming programme to address helminthic infections among primary school children. The aim of the paper is to provide an overview of the programme in school in Swaziland. The aim is to link to the research output of the ongoing study by the Human and Enzootic research team. The goal is to provide a useful insight into the problems of geophagia and to assist the countries to provide relevant policies and strategies to address health related consequences from people ingesting soils. Currently the de-worming is done twice a year. De-worming has been found to be cheap and the Public Health unit uses the drug albendazole in all schools. The argument for de-worming is that children are more active in school, grow and learn better and are more resistant to other infections. It is expected that results from the multidisciplinary team on geophagia will provide research results that are evidenced-based can assist the country to further improve its school-based interventions. Finally, the ultimate goal is to contribute to knowledge transfer of research data to communities.

*Corresponding author: E-mail: nom@uniswacc.uniswa.sz

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Rooted to the Soil’: Earth-eating as a Social and Cultural Practice

among the BaSotho

P. Phoofolo

Walter Sisulu University

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Keywords: BaSotho; cultural; earth-eating; gender; generations; power; social

The physiological causes of earth-eating have received more scholarly attention than the culinary practice’s social and cultural meanings. This is despite overwhelming indication, even cursorily, that this practice is thoroughly embedded and intertwined in the cultures, cosmologies and changing histories of the communities that practise it. Anything approaching a fuller understanding of earth-eating can be accomplished only by locating this practice in the interplay of social, cultural and physiological factors. This study contributes to the meagre, but emerging, corpus of scholarly literature trying to make sense of the multiple social and cultural meanings of earth-eating. Focusing on the BaSotho, it will draw on data collected from various sources. These will include in-depth oral interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation, village surveys, questionnaires, informal conversations and proverbs and idioms relating to earth and soil. Besides the ethnographic aspects of earth-eating – who consume soil; age, gender and physiological status of consumers; the historical origins of the practice; soil types preferred and source of the soil; how the soil is prepared before consumption; its texture, taste, smell and the amount and regularity of consumption; the motivations behind its consumption – the study will investigate several interconnected themes in which earth eating plays a role. These will include wider themes wherein earth is implicated and how these endow social and cultural meanings to earth-eating. Specifically, the study will eavesdrop on popular discourse on, and about, earth-eating to explore the ways by which the practice is implicated in the changing relations of genders, generations and power.

E-mail: pphoofolo@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Demographic observations of geophagic populations in Free State and

Limpopo Provinces, South Africa

S.P. Songca

Faculty of Science Engineering and Technology

Walter Sisulu University

PO Box 19712, Tecoma, East London, 5214

Keywords: age, average income, average schooling, ethnic group,

A sample of 221 people were interviewed in rural, suburban and urban areas on their practice of geophagia in the Thabo-Mofutsunyane and Mangaung districts, Orange Free State, and the Polokwane and Skhukhune districts in Polokwane Limpopo Province here in South Africa. The ages of the people ranged from 18 to 60 years and included the ethnic groups Sotho, Tshwana, Zulu, Pedi, Tsonga, Xhosa, Swati and Venda. The people interviewed were a mixture of single, married, divorced, widowed and cohabiting and had a range of number of children from none to six. Most of the people were unemployed with an average schooling of secondary education at grade 12 and an average income of ZAR 2700. Most were women with only a few men. The sampling data suggests that the practice of geophagia was investigated among people of African decent in four remote areas of South Africa, mostly women. Because of the level of education, the people interviewed would have a reasonable understanding and articulation of the pica they were being interviewed on and would therefore provide reasonably informed feedback.

E-mail: spsongca@wsu.ac.za

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

The Socio Economic Aspects of Geophagic Women in Southern Africa

G. Peter

Department of Geography, Environmental Sciences and Planning, University of

Swaziland, Private Bag 4, Kwaluseni, M201 Swaziland.

Keywords: Geophagic women, Socio economic characteristics, Rural and urban areas

Soil or clay eating has been reported among women, especially among pregnant women, from almost every part of the world. It is a widespread practice by both humans and animals, and appears to reflect some intuitive use of soils for various benefits. It may meet certain nutrient deficits. It may protect against plant toxins. It may relieve unpleasant symptoms of pregnancy. It may provide medicinal help. Agreed that soil-pica exists, but the prevalence at a given soil ingestion rate had not been adequately characterized. Geophagy has been observed on all continents, but it is particularly prevalent among certain cultural groups. The problem for this study is that although it was observed that geophagy did not appear to vary with socio-economic class. We do not know whether this observation also applies to the women in Southern Africa. Also we do not know whether geophagy is more common among urban or rural populations and its causes. This study is an attempt to gain understanding into the cause of geophagy and the socio economic characteristics of geophagic women in Southern Africa. Purposive sampling was used to select women who ate clays in four sites in South Africa. A total of 221 women were selected and interviewed using a questionnaire, 62 from Qwa Qwa, 50 from Mangaung, 55 from Polokwane and 54 from Sekhukhane. Data analysis mainly involved cross tabulations between demographic and socio economic characteristics of the respondents and comparisons between the four sites and between rural and sub urban areas. The results showed that the majority of the respondents (97.7%) were eating soil at the time of the survey and their frequency of eating was high as 46.2% once a day while 23.1% ate more than once a day. More of the women from Polokwane (74.1%) and Sekhukhane (72.2%) ate soil once and more than once in a day. There was no significant difference in the frequency of eating soil between rural (69.8%) and sub urban (68.5%) areas. However, those in rural areas ate soil more regularly (66.9%) compared to those in sub urban areas (58.7%). Very few ate soils only when pregnant (8.4%) and this was higher in sub urban compared to rural (5.1%). More of those who ate soil were single, particularly in Qwa Qwa (71.7%) and Mangaung (67.3%) and in non wage employment. Spatial differences in the distribution of geophagic behaviour between study sites; between rural and sub urban areas as well as across socio economic groups based on source of income has been observed. There is need for more rigourous analysis and wider coverage of the different socio economic groups to come out with solid conclusions.

E-mail: gpeter@uniswacc.uniswa.sz

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

The Socio-cultural Aspects of Geophagia in Southern Africa

N. O. Simelane

Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, University of

Swaziland, Private Bag 4. Kwaluseni M201, Swaziland

Keywords: knowledge transfer; socio-cultural aspects; ritualistic; indigenous knowledge.

Geophagy, the consumption of earth, is currently a source of interesting study among researchers in Southern Africa. The Human and Enzootic research study covering South, Africa, Botswana and Swaziland is an example of this initiative where a multidisciplinary approach has been adopted to study not the soils eaten but to also study the socio-cultural aspects of geophagia in the countries of Botswana, South Africa and Swaziland. The aim is to establish scientific and indigenous associations and how practices relating to geophagic are related in the 3 countries. The ultimate goal is to contribute to knowledge transfers to communities. Surveys were conducted in South Africa and Swaziland. The interview approach was found appropriate to contextualize geophagic behaviour within communities. Three target groups were selected: adults, children and university students. The paper aims to outline the socio-cultural aspects relating to the practice of geophagy and to determine indigenous knowledge of adult, children and university students. Further, to also present preliminary results of the survey undertaken. Analysis of data is ongoing and currently only data from South Africa has been annualized. Data was collected for adults in various communities, in South Africa. Sixty two and 55 adult females from Qwa Qwa and Managing Free State respectively and 55 and 56 adults from Polokwane and Sikhukhune were interviewed. Information sought from respondents mainly focused on geophagic habits of adults. Preliminary evidence indicates the practice is fairly widespread among adults. The majority of respondents (96.7%) eat soil; the frequency of soil ingestion is high with most eating soil more than 7 times each day. In terms of length of the practice, the average was 12 years. Reasons provided why people eat soil were various but craving and pregnancy were rated high for all four communities. It was only in Qwa Qwa, where ritualistic, hunger and complementing the diet a 100% of the sample rated these three factors. In terms of qualities, consumed, perception of practice analysis of the data is still ongoing. While data was collected from Swaziland, processing is still at the coding stage, thus no results are available.

E-mail: nom@uniswacc.uniswa.sz

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

 

Author page reference

Abrahams, P.W. 27, 38

Adonis, N. A. 41

Ali, S. M. 51

Anyangwe, S. 18

Brand, C.E. 48

Chungag, A. 47

Coetzee, S. H. 31, 56

Davies, T.C. 27, 38

de Jager, L. 20, 21, 24, 43, 45, 48, 54, 55

Diko, A. C. 39

Diko, M. L. 39

Ditlhogo, M. 55

Ekosse, G-I E. 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 31, 43, 45, 48, 54, 55

Gashe, B. A. 31, 56

Hillier, S. 51

Jumbam, N. D. 26

Kasanda, B. 42

Katende-Kyenda, N L 46

Lar, P. 27, 38

Masia, L. P. 33, 35

Mogongoa, L.F. 48

Moloi, A. 37

Morobe, I. 31

Morton, E. 50

Mpuchane, S. F. 31, 56

Mulaba – Bafubiandi, A.F. 37, 40, 42

Ngole, V. 20, 24, 28, 54, 55

Nkanyuza, S. N. 41

Nkeh-Chungag, B.N. 47

Obi, C.L. 17

Ogola, J.S. 16

Peter, G. 58, 61

Phoofolo, P. 59

Rasmussen, K. M. 51

Simelane, N. O. 58, 62

Sewani-Rusike, C. 47

Songca, S.P. 60

Solomon, A.O. 27, 38

Stoltzfus, R. J. 51

Totolo, O. 23, 30

Umesiobi, D. O. 33, 35

van Deventer, J.M. 51

van Deventer, P.W. 51

van Onselen, A. 45

van Schalkwyk, F. E. 45

Wilson, J. 51

Young, S. L. 51

Click here for more info